Growth and Development of Limboo Language and Literature in Sikkim

Introduction:      

The Limboo, one of the major languages of Sikkim and Nepal is widely used both as spoken and written language among the Limboo community. It is also spoken in some parts of West Bengal and North-Eastern states of India. It belongs to the Tibeto-Burman language sub-family of Sino-Tibet language stock. The Limboos call it Yakthung Sappa:n and the script the Srijonga Script. It has four main dialects; Panchthare, Phedape, Chhathare and Tamborkhole among which Panchthare is most commonly spoken and used as lingua-franca among the Limboos for both communication and writing (Van Driem, 1987). The use of diacritical marks such as glottal stops, vowel-lengths and coda-consonants is one of the distinct features of Limboo language.

In Nepal, of 356000 total Limboo population of Limboos, 333633 speak Limboo language (Yonzone, 2001, p. 23). In India, there are 37265 Limboo speakers of which 34292 are in Sikkim, 2377 West Bengal, 288 Assam, 141 Rajesthan, 92 Arunachal Pradesh, 17 Maharastra,13 Nagaland, 10 Karnataka, 5 Dadra and Nagar Haveli, 4 Manipur, 3 Andhra Pradesh, 3 Tamil Nadu, 2 Delhi and 1 from Mizoram (Census of India, 2001, Table C-16, Govt. of India).

I. Development of Limboo Language:

In Sikkim, Limboo language is one of the eleven state official languages. No other community other than Limboo speaks this language in Sikkim. Out of 56650 total population of Limboos in Sikkim (DESME, Govt. of Sikkim, 2005-2006, p. 32), about 66.20% of Limboos’ total population and 5.89% of the total population of Sikkim speak Limboo language.

Until 1950s, the reading and writing of Limboo language and script was not known in Sikkim. It was after the advent of Iman Singh Chemjong in 1940s that Limboo script and literature could set a new milestone in Sikkim. In 1951, two Limboo primers, ‘Tum Yakthung Ningwa?phu Sapla’ and ‘Nisigeg Yakthung Sapla’ were published by Iman Singh Chemjong, M B Khamdhak and P S Muringla. The premiers were the first Limboo books ever written in the history of Limboo language and literature in Sikkim. It was on the basis of these primers that teaching of Limboo language in the schools and writing of literature set its threshold in Sikkim.

Teaching of Limboo Language in Sikkim:

Teaching of Limboo Language in the schools of Sikkim started with the Royal Proclamation of the Chogyal Palden Thendup Namgyal, the then king of Sikkim in 1968 (Notification No 36/62/990/Edu 11^th March 1968).  Following this, late Itcha Purna Das Limboo was appointed as Limboo language teacher in Samdong School, west Sikkim. Therefrom, teaching of Limboo language started in Sikkim up to Class-II as one of the optional subjects. In 1972, a committee consisting of five members was constituted to look into the problem and deficiency of Limboo text books under the chairmanship of the then Queen, Hope Cook (Subba, 2005, p. 7). But the committee remained defunct. In the subsequent years, from 1968-1974 09 Limboo language teachers; Itcha Purna Das, Jarman Nembang, Mahabir Nembang, Tejman Nembang, Karna Singh Khamdhak, Chandra Mangyung, Dhan Raj Pondhak, Lall Bdr Subba and Harka Bir Nembang. However, the progress and development of Limboo language was very slow.

The Limboo language witnessed its rapid growth and development and gained its momentum after the dawn of democracy in Sikkim, 1975. On 24^th April 1976, the Government of Sikkim appointed Shri B B Muringla as an Assistant Text Book Writer (ATBW) for the preparation of Limboo text books. After Muringla’s appointment to the ATBW, formal Limboo text books were prepared at par with the other subjects and according to curriculum framed by the Education Department, Government of Sikkim. By the end of 1976, teaching of Limboo started in the schools of Sikkim up to Class-VI and then in 1979 upto class VII.  In 1980, teaching of Limboo language as formal education upto Class VIII started. In 1981, Central Board of Secondary Education (CBSE) recognized Limboo language as one of the core subjects and introduced the same for Class IX and X in the schools of Sikkim. In the same year, Limboo language was given the status of State Official Language by the Government of Sikkim (Notification No.6/LD/81,dated;31^st March, 1981). On 3rd March 1983, All India Radio, Gangtok started broadcasting Limboo songs and news biweekly composite programme for 15^th minutes. On 17^th December 1983, CBSE, New Delhi introduced Limboo language as core subject upto Class XI from academic session 1984 and Class XII in 1985 (Notification No.DD No. Academic 11/F1 (2) 83/49983). In 1984, Limboo script was selected for National Award and former Chief Minister of Sikkim, Shri Sanchaman Limboo was conferred the Award for printing letter designing. Since 1989, IPR Department also started publishing Sikkim Herald in Limboo language and there is one editor in IPR for Limboo language. Even in the Sikkim Legislative Assembly, the translation work of the proceedings of Sikkim Legislative Assembly in Limboo language was started in 1997.

From Academic Session 2000, the University Authorities of Under-Graduate Council, NBU introduced Limboo language as Modern Indian Language (MIL) of 50 marks in two of the Colleges of Sikkim (Ref No.312/UG/2000, July 17^th 2000). In 2008, Sikkim University Authority declared Limboo language as one of the Elective Subjects consisting of three papers of 100 marks each and Compulsory Regional Language (CRL) of 100 marks at par with other subjects. From the academic session 2012, teaching of Limboo language as one of the honours subject in three government Colleges of Sikkim has been started.

Position of Limboo Language Teachers in the Schools of Sikkim:         

With the up-climbing of Limboo language in the ladder of educational institutions in Sikkim, the number of Limboo language teachers (LLT) in the schools of Sikkim has also been increased. In between 1968 and 1974, the total number of LLTs was only 09. But after 1975, number of Limboo language teachers increased remarkably. In between 1975 and 1979, 23 Limboo language teachers were appointed. Likewise, from 1980-1994 and 1995-2011, 168 and 89 teachers main for Limboo language teaching were appointed respectively. Since 1968 to till date, altogether 279 posts for the Limboo language teachers have been created so far. Out of 279 LLTs working in the various government schools of Sikkim, 221 are Primary Teachers, 48 Graduate Teachers and 10 Post Graduate Teachers. Among 279 Limboo language teachers appointed in Sikkim so far, 22 have been expired, 4 of them resigned, 4 of them retired, 6 of them are duputed to the other daepatments and 1 got retired under VRS Scheme.

While corresponding to the district-wise distributional pattern and posting of Limboo language teachers (LLTs), west district has highest number of Limboo language teachers with the total number of 173 (62%) of which 142 PTs, 26 GTs and 05 PGTs. Next to this, east district has second highest LLTs, with total number of 55, of which, 41 PTs, 11 GTs, 03 PGTs. This constitutes about 19.71% of the 279 LLTs of Sikkim. The south district stands in the third position in terms of district-wise distributional pattern and posting of Limboo language teachers (LLTs) with the 43 total enrolment. Of which 32 are PTs, 10 GTs and 01 PGTs, constituting 15.41% the total LLTs of Sikkim. The district having lowest number of LLTs is North district. It has only 06 PTs, 01 GTs and 01 PGTs; 08 in total which constitute 2.86% of the total of 279 Limboo language teachers. In the percentage, the Limboo language teachers in the schools of Sikkim constitute only 4 % against 6971 of the total number of teachers working in the various schools of Sikkim (HRDD, Govt. of Sikkim).

Teaching Position of Limboo Language in the Schools of Sikkim:

In Sikkim, there are 778 Government schools, 354 private schools and 07 Colleges (DESME, Govt. of Sikkim, 2005-2006). Out of these educational institutions run by the Sikkim Government and private individual, Limboo language is being taught in 199 government schools (25.57%) of the total Government schools, 14 private schools run by the private individual (3.95%) of the total private schools in Sikkim, 03 Sikkim Govt. Colleges and 01 centrally sponsored Tribal School, Eklabya Tribal School, Chongrong. Out of those 199 government schools, Limboo language is being taught in 03 Lower Primary, 81 Primary, 40 are Junior High Schools, 45 are Secondary and 30 are Senior Secondary schools as indicated in Table:1.

Table:1.

Position of Limboo Language Teachers working in the schools of Sikkim as on 2011.

District	Lower-Primary Schools	Primary Schools	Junior High Schools	Secondary Schools	Sr. Secondary Schools	Total
West	02	59	21	26	11	119
East	00	10	09	09	11	9
South	01	09	08	09	07	4
North	00	03	02	01	01	7
Total	03	81	40	45	30	199

       Source:  Field Survey. 

Present Position of Limboo Language Readers in the Schools and Colleges of Sikkim:

At present, there are altogether 8180 students, studying Limboo language as one of their main subjects in those 199 government schools of Sikkim as shown in Table:1. West district of Sikkim alone has 119 government schools where 5330 students read Limboo language. The east and south district have 39 and 34 government schools where 1049 and 1141 students read Limboo language respectively. While the north district has only 07 government schools where Limboo language is being taught and in those schools there are 660 Limboo language readers. The west district has highest Limboo language readers constituting 65.15% in the government schools of Sikkim. Then it is followed by south and east districts with (13.94%) and (12.82%) total readers respectively. The north district has lowest number of Limboo language readers, constituting only 8.06% total of 8180 as in 2011.

In the under-graduade level, from academic session 2008-2012, altogether, 277 students opting Limboo  as one of the main subject got admitted in three of Colleges.  Out of which, 29 of them have been droped-out and 37 of them have passed out of the Colleges. Only 173 of them are continuing their study in three of the Government College of Sikkim viz. Sikkim Govt College, Tadong, Namchi and Geyzing.

II. Development and growth of Limboo Literature:

Limboo Literature as a mirror basically reflects the socio-economic and political conditions of the society and social way of life, faith and belief, different aspects of the Limboo community in the particular period of time. The Limboo literature may be classified in two written and oral. The literature which has descended to us from our great fathers or forefather is in the form of oral literature. While written literature is the record of the human thought, idea, imagination, feeling etc in written form. The purpose of both the literature is expounding of philosophy of life, enshrining and keeping up the memory of the great deeds and vision of the fore-fathers and ancestors and to cherish all that was good or evil, to treasure folk literature containing both aesthetic values and artistic aspects.

II (i) Limboo Folk Literature:

The Limboos, like any other tribal communities of North-Eastern Himalayas are deeply rich and distinctive in traditions. They have their own mythology, legends, myths, corpus of songs, verses, fables, tales, proverbs, idioms and other type s of oral literature which has transmitted from one generation to the other generation by word of mouth. These constitute what is called folk literature of tribal Limboos.  Their folk traditions and literature are in no inferior to fables and tales of other communities but indeed rich can be gauzed by all who really take kin interest in its study  or who are closely acquainted with the life of common Limboo folks in the villages.

The legends, myths, folk songs, verses, fables, tales, riddles, proverbs, idioms and other types of oral literature are deeply interlaced with different social phenomenon and belief system like religion, mythology, socio-economic life and whole gamut of tribal social and ethos. These manifest the relation with the beauty of the nature, the sound of waterfalls, the sounds of the springs, winds reverberating through the vales and hills, the chirping of the myriad birds, screaming of the animals, the varied music of insects and cries of reptiles and so on.

The growth and development of Limboo folk literature in written form can be credited and traced to the early writing of renowned Kiratalogist, Chemjong’s Kirat Mundhum and Kirat Dantya Katha (1964), Santabir Khamdhak and Pahalman Nermbang’s Yumasam and Pallam (1964), Shiva Kumar Shrestha’s Kirati Lok Kathaharu (1991), Janaklal Sharma’s Maksimbung Ko Katha (1983), Birahi Kaila’s Yakthunglay Mukpa:nha? (1987) and Prithivir Raj Khewa’s Limboo Lai Kina Chitwa Bhaniyo (Subba, 2002, p. 33). But all these were written in Dewnagari script. The writing of Limboo folk stories in Srijonga script was conceived in the two premiers of 1951 but could not proper shape until1975 when Limboo text books for different classes was prepared by Shri BB Muringla. The most notable folk stories which appeared in the Limboo text books are Phung Pit Nu Samwet by B B Muringla, Ta:nchho:ppa by Serman Tamling, Puttukay Tu:kma Kheda? by M B Nembang, Ya?rakma Mundhum and Chosapi by M B Tamling, Kay Po:kma Mundhum and Mangdo:k, by BB Muringla,  A?donga Asiretcho by Harka Khamdhak, Sakmra and Muyasammang Mundhum by Mohn Subba, Sosingba by T M Nembang, Ne?nusa? Kheda? and Horoba Kheda? by R B Le:kwahang Khamdhak, Phatti:ma Nu Phundwa by Pahalman Nembang and Mohn Subba, Kheseberi by Maita Sing Subba, Chillikchomaray Kheda? by B B Muringla and M B Subba, Chiknawa by B B Muringla and Morajo-in Omettullay by Mohn Ijam. The folk stories are intertwined with Limboo mythologies and socio-cultural and religious way of life as well as with the nature, hills, rivers, lakes, caves, plants and nature of animals, birds, insects etc. A collection of Limboo folk stories Pemuksigangba Kheda?ha? (2009) by Buddhi Le:kwahang Khamdhak, in most of the stories reflect the interwoven characteristic of Limboos with myths and mythologies. There are also written Mundhum books available at present. Documentation of Mundhums in written form was started since 1990s from Nepal. The first Mundhum book Sapok Chomen (1991) was compiled and edited by Bairagi Kainla. Then was followed by Nahen Mundhum (1994), Samsogha Mundhum  (1994), Tongsing Tokma Mundhum (1994), Sosik Mundhum (1995) and Cho:it Mundhum (2003) by the same scholar. While in Sikkim, Limboo Mundhum documentation and writing commenced in late 1990s with the publication of number of mundhums by JR Subba such as Yakthunglay Tendham Me:khim Mundhum in (1998), Yakthunglay Phungso:k Timma Mundhum (1999), Sumsemba Tongsing Tokma Mundhum (2001), Simering Mundhum (2002) and  Mujo:tlung Khejo:tlung Mundhum (2003)  and Yakthung Mundhum-Vol-I (2009) by Buddhi  Le:kwahang Khamdhak. The mundhum books by Subba are records, collection, compilation and edition from the recitation of Limboo shamans and written in classical language while work by Khamdhak is an interpretation and reconstruction in common Limboo language that can even be understood by the common folks.

II (ii) Different forms of Oral Limboo Literature:

The Mundhums chanted and recited by the Limboo priests and Samlos sung on various occasions form the poetry type of oral literature in Limboo.

The mundhum which determines the whole socio-cultural life of the tribal Limboos is recited and chanted by the Limboo priests, Phedangmas, Sambas and Yebas or Yemas on certain religious and ritual functions and ceremonies. Mundhums as an oral Limboo literature is an important source of information of the prehistoric era. Once it is chanted, it comes out like cascading waterfall from the mouth of the narrator, the Limboo priest; Phedangma, Samba or Yeba or Yema. Mundhum as a religious song has lived since generations and passed down from one generation to another. It contains legends, myths, faith and belief, philosophical thoughts etc. It is composed of rhyming couplets, the two lines having an almost identical rhythm and in many cases the same number of syllables. There are lines which complement each other in meaning; they are semantically and syntactically similar. Mundhum as an oral literature are of different types. Among the tribal Limboo community, it is believed that the faculty of mastering oral literature especially in mundhum is a special gift of the Gods and spirits. The Limboo priests, Phedangmas, Sambas, Yebas or Yemas and Tumyanghangs assert that when one is gifted by the Tageraniwa?phuma and visited by the sam seerays (master spirits) or taught by a mysterious being in dream, then they profess what is called ‘Mundhum’.

Similarly, the Samlos are sung to an audience, among the friends and relatives on the various occasions of the social and ceremonial functions by the Tumyanghangs, Phedangmas, Sambas, Yebas or Yemas and even ladies and gentlemen, girls and boys of teenagers on various occasions. Both the oral compositions are passed on by word of mouth from one generation to another and preserved through the oral translation. The Samlo evolve tremendous exercise of memory power, command of language and use of poetic and classical devices like phrases, rhythm and rhymes like that of the Mundhum. The Samlos may be found in different forms as discussed under:

Pang-Samlo, Limboo folk song constitutes the most important component of Limboos’ folk literature. Pang-Samlo, in most compressed and classic form with stock words, phrases and expression has been transmitted from one generation to another generation through the words of mouth. It is of various types, such as Pa:llam samlo, Tumyanghang samlo, Hakparay samlo, Tamkay O:kay samlo and Phungwa samlo. Pallam samlo is an improvised poetical song accompanying Limboo folk dance, Ya?rak (Ya? means paddy and La:ng means dance). Pallam, as a wide gamut ranges from narration of stories to the outpouring of deep emotional feelings of pathos, love, amorous, or longevous longings. In many composition a rhythm is often punctuated by a particle like a, hi, ho, ha, ha, o rilo, etc,  like a caesura always repeated at the same point in each line by way of placing a strong emphasis of emotion. It greatly varies from place to place, person to person and occasion to occasion. No musical instrument is required while sung but accompanied by the melodic tonal chorus, ha...ha...ha. The tune or vocalization style of pa:llam depends upon the type of dance and style of singer. It is usually sung in slow tempo with a long regular gliding tune, difficult to measure with a metronome. The subject matter of pa:llam is predominantly the love affairs, romantic relationships, aspirations and frustrations feeling of melancholy or separation and unsettled longing of life. It is full of light and romantic discussion between two sweet-hearts or singers. Pa:llam starts from introductory inquires as it is against the Limboo custom to sing love songs among relatives. The discussion sometimes encompasses the way of life of early people, the origin of love, relationship of love and life, love affairs and marriage union and many other areas of inner human world. In the earlier days, the pa:llam was also sung while grinding corns in the grinding stones at night. The melodious tune and rhythm of such Limboo folk songs, specially pa:llam of dhan nach have gave rise to the varities of Nepali songs (Pradhan, 1984, p.17).

The genre called Tumyanghang Samlo is an ancient and traditional oral song sung by the elderly gentlemen and Limboo shamans; Phedangma, Samba and Yeba or Yema on the various ritualistic ceremonies and social functions sitting together on the floor and facing each other. The song varies according to the nature of the ritual, occasion and function. It is sung to the audience by a skillful and artistic singer in the descriptive and poetical form with the rhythms, rhymes and couplets followed by the chorus of the other members of the team at the end of the song. There may also be a leader singer as an opponent with his team members to encounter the other singer and the team.

Hakparay Samlo is another traditional song of Limboo community sung during various occasions by the most experienced and senior Limboo citizen or priest. There may be two well versed and experienced singers leading each of their own team and encountering one another. The song may be brief or long sometimes. It usually depends according the nature of the occasion and singer who sings the song. While completing the stanza of the song by the leader singer, the team members chorus with the word, ‘o rillo’.

Tam o:kay samlo is an ancient agricultural song and relating to the agricultural activities. In this invocation and propitiatation of deities and divinities either before cultivation or after the harvesting of the food grains takes place. Tam o:kay samlo is most typical and unique agricultural song the Limboo community possess and sing. In the other sense, no community other than Limboos in Sikkim has the practice of singing such kind of song during agricultural activities. It is performed during the time of weeding of maize saplings to prayer and praise the mother goddess and local deities for the protection of crops from the natural calamities and bumper food grains. The two leading singers leading each team and question and encounter each other. The team members will assist their singer leader in chorusing the song.

Phungwa Samlo is ritualistic song sung during marriage ceremony of tribal Limboos. Either the senior most called Tumyanghangs of same or opposite sex sing this song. While singing this particular song, the myth about the creation and dispersion different species of flowers in the different regions is explained in a poetical form. In Limboo tradition, flower signifies both human life and unmarried girls and boys. Henceforth, genesis of love, meet of the two lovers, sweet-hearts and their marriage is described in the song. In earlier days, singers through Phungwa samlo could make the flower placed and decorated in front of the bridegrooms and brides to fade and bloom or vise-versa. But now-a-days such event has become impossible to observe.

Khyali a poetical dialogue between two persons of either same or opposite sex is form of couplet poetry. Khyali as preliminary negotiation or introductory inquiries used among the Limboos exchange the views, express the emotional and romantic feelings in the alliterative language with strophic references and use of metaphor. The Khyali eventually leads to Limboo traditional dance, Ya?rak.

Imlo samlo is a lullaby song the Limboo women usually sing to make a baby to sleep. The song has the use of alliterative words and is repeatedly sung until a baby is slept. The song runs as:

 ‘Aa Lo Lo Lo Lo Yee

  Imbaro Imbaro Imbaro Imbaro

  Aa Lo Lo Lo Lo Yee

 Kembaray Faklang Ke:kwa Taru Kebi?ro

 Aa Lo Lo Lo Lo Yee’.

Aa Lo Lo Lo Lo Yee

Well!  sleep! sleep sleep sleep

Aa Lo Lo Lo Lo Yee

Father will fetch you paying material pig leg.

Aa Lo Lo Lo Lo Yee.

Pang-kheda?, folk stories, recited on almost all occasions specially in the villages, also occupies very important place in the life of the common folk and children of Limboo community. While reciting pang-kheda?, the common folks and children come together and sit around the fire-place either inside house or in the cowsheds specially in the evening or in the open lawn in some other occasion during leisure time. Anyone among the group recites the story meanwhile others listen to the teller. The teller begins with the sentence, ‘togi togi lothik pongve?-o hangsit yunge……..’. The listeners say ‘o saba adangbay…’. After he or she completes the story, next anyone interested to say can again recite and others will again listen.

Yokcha Kheda?,(riddles) also occupies very important place in the life of the children in the Limboo society. In yokcha kheda?, the child who fails to give  the appropriate answer the questioner then has to cede a village. The questioner then claims that all good things of the ceded place are his and all bad things are said to belong to the unsuccessful participant in such quiz competition and gives out the answer. Questions asked in the riddles are imaginative and brainstorming which need concise answer and artistic of language. 

‘Yunglay Tumyog Poklay sumyog’ Thema?

Sits like a curtain and gets up like cotton. What is ti?

Answer:  Fog.

‘Attin yupa sigang samyang yak’?

Which silver contains gold?

Answer: Egg.

‘Nanchhing sobaray lothikla? may’. Thema?

‘Hundred monkeis have only onea tail’ what is it?

Answer: Bunch of Banana.

‘Kuhe:la su:kwa sigang kuvora yupa yang’ Thema?

‘A red bag containing white silver coins’ What is it?

Answer: Red Chilly.

Nam U:pma (invoking of sun), a composition of the playing kids during rainy day also constitute an important component of Limboo folk literature. The composition runs as “Namlo Namlo; Namlo Namlo; Tha:kpa Mey Pongsong, Suba Hee Khetrek;  Namlo Namlo’. Meaning “Come sun come out! Come sun come out! The tail of squirrel has bulged, The faeces of rat has been dried; Come sun come out!”

Apart from these, Limboo mukpa:n (proverbs) and pa:nlup (phrases and idioms) form major part of Limboo folk literature. The mukpa:n and pa:nlup  are short sentences drawn from long experiences of different ages of Limboo social way of life. These are very closely intertwined with the socio-cultural way as well as day to day life of common Limboo folks and connected with the human organs, common objects, and actions of human being. There are few publications of Limboo mukpa:n and pa:nlup. In 1983, when Limboo Grammar was prepared by B B Muringla, for the propose of secondary and senior secondary, number of Limboo mukpa:n (proverbs) and pa:nlup (phrases) were collected and compiled in the grammar. Birahi Kainla of Mirik (1986) had also compiled the collection Limboo proverbs. This further enriched and strengthened the Limboo folk literature. Some popular mukpa:ns (proverbs) are;

Singbung chongthang  puttu:kay

Yepme:t te?ma  yettuk khay.

Top of the tree invites dove of much kinds

If married many times invites tension and problems.

Fa fekgara mek.

If bamboo blooms then perishes.

Meejakinang  menghengay mee medha:nen

Until struck, splint does not produce spark of fire.

Saklay manglay au:khu?khu?

Tonglay manglay ae:t lay?lay?

Man recalls time and again to his relatives when losses

But refuses and forgets when he possesses.

Huktappay thikla? Memuknen.

Single palm does not produce sound.

Some of the popular pa:nlup (phrases or idioms) which are interwoven the Limboo community and society are;

Phrases related to huk (hand)-

Huk ke:mma?                            = too steal.

Huk mura tumma                      = to eat.

Huk ekma                                  = to become all alone.

Huk leppma                              = to give or to fight etc.

Phrases related to negho? (ear)-

Negho? Mupma                          = to insticate.

Negho? Temma                          = to swear.

Negho? Changjang mepma      = to listen carefully etc.

Phrases related to nebo? (nose)-

Nebo? Tukma                            =to get jealousy.

Nebo? Ta:kma                          = to praise.        

Nebo? Pe:kma                          = to get defamed etc.

Phrases related to mura  (mouth)-

Mura lepma                              = to speak back.

Mura supmepma                      = to keep quite.

Mura pa:ngma                         = to speak etc.

Phrases related to meek (eye)-

Meek le:ma                              = to be attracted.

Meek pa:ngma                         = to be conscious.

Meek phi:pma                          = to cry.

Meek la:kma                            = to feel sleepy.

Meek tukma                             = to get jealousy etc.

III (i) Written Limboo Literature:

The growth and development of written literature among the Limboo in Sikkim is of recent origin of 1950s and in the short span of 60 years it has outgrown its immaturity and gradually spreading its wings to the horizon of new dimensions which have never been expected in the past decades. In both poetry and prose, like other literature, the trend of Limboo literature is gaining momentum towards the direction of new dimension and modernity with new outlook and approach. For precise understanding it can further be divided into two sections poetry and prose.

III i. (a) Limboo Poetry:

In Sikkim, beginning of written Limboo poetry can be traced back early 1950s.  Prior to this, rhetorical and rhymic folk songs and mundhums among the Limboo tribes were much common form of oral poetry. The poetical songs like Pa:llam, Tumyang Yanghang samlo, Hakparay, Khyali, Phungwa Changma samlo, Tam Akay samlo etc which are still apparent and preserved through oral transmission among the Limboo community have tremendously contributed the writing and growth of varies of modern Limboo poetry. The folk songs, most compressed and classic form with stock words, phrases, in ancient days were sang with the tune of mikla ko:m (bamboo harp) and tender leaves of plants and trees. Mundhum (mythology), which lived since generations and passed down from one generation to another by Limboo shamans; Phedangmas, Sambas and Yebas or  Yemas and Tumyanghangs too, greatly influenced and determined the writing of poetic diction of modern Limboo poetry. The alliterative words like ‘a’, ‘hi’ ‘allo’ etc of mundhum (mythology) and folk songs have strong inheritance over the Limboo modern literature. Both mundhum and samlo evolve tremendous exercise and command of language over the modern literary Limboo poetry and those poetic and classical devices like words, phrases, rhythm and rhymes used in them still bear ample significant  in enriching and glamoring modern Limboo poetry.

In 1951, first Limboo premier, Tum Yakthung Ningwa?phu Sapla and Yakthung Nisige:k Sapla were written and published by the trio, Iman Singh Chemjong, Mon Bahadur Khamdhak and Padam Singh Muringla. The former was basically grammar containing Limboo alphabets (both vowels and consonants), vocabulary, mundhum (mythology), khahuns (preachings or advices) and a story, while latter contained devotional poems, stories, and compositions of various degree and kinds. The two premier books written in Sikkim set a new milestone towards the growth and development of Limboo language and opened threshold for the emergence of written literature in Sikkim.

In 1964, Yumasam and Pa:llam by Santa Bir Khamdhak and Pahalman Nembang was written. This was completely poetry book containing two poems entitled Yuma Mang and Pa:llam devotional and lyrical Limboo songs in the poetical form written in Dewnagari script but in Limboo language. In 1974, publication and edition of annual Limboo magazine, Tumdumdo Hena was started by Shri B B Muringla of Lingchom and Chandra Mangyung of Samdong, west Sikkim. This was the first Limboo magazine ever published and produced from Sikkim. This magazine, in its first edition contained two modern Limboo poetries, Ningwa?phu-o Ningwa? Tukma Pa:n by B B Muringla and Kombhasit Metnay by Chandra Mangyung. In 1975, second edition of the same magazine was published. In that, there were two poetries, Nahen by Muringla and E:ttangsinglay by Mangyung. In the subsequent years, when Tumdumdo Hena was published, number of Limboo poetries by different writers increasingly appeared. In 1978, another magazine, Nuwa Inghong by trio, Mohn Ijam, R B Le:kwahang Khamdhak and Aitaman Tamling emerged in the field of Limboo literature which further accelerated the growing movement of Limboo poetry.

Meanwhile in between 1975 and 1976, writing of Limboo text books also began. In the Limboo text books, modern Limboo poetries were included as per the school curriculum. This gave Limboo language readers in the schools ample opportunities to taste the glamour of imagination, fancy, ideas, thoughts and poetic diction of the various Limboo poets and could enjoy lyrical, rhetorical and rhymic Limboo poems of both unidirectional and multi-dimensional nature. By 1984, reading of Limboo as one of the core subject began upto class XII. In the text books ranging from Class-I to Class-XII, the poetries of different nature and level were included. In those days, the prominent contributors of the Limboo poetry were Chemjong, M B Khamdhak, B B Muringla, Chandra Mangyung, Jas Hang Maden, Birahi Kaila, Yehang Laoti, Bol Muringla, T B Nembang, S M Tamling, M B Nembang, R B Lekwahang Khamdhak, N B Tamling, Mohn Ijam, Harka Khamdhak, Aita Man Tamling, Mohn Phrumbo, Bir Nembang, Sing Bdr Parangden, I B Setling, C M Tumpapo, Menuka Khewa, Krishna Maya Sawaden etc. The poetries of those days reflected mostly the social evils and problems which prevailed in the Limboo society at that period of time. The poems were more didactic, appealing for social reforms and change in the society and community. Approach for the rejuvenation of culture, language etc. The literary awakening was dominant theme of most of the poetry.

In the Limboo annual magazines which have mushroomed in 1980s, the poems of various kind and degree appeared. The poems written during this particular point of time mostly appealed for social reforms against prevailing social evils such as over drinking and gambling etc. The poetic diction of the poetry was compressed and emphasized more on meter and syllable. As such the poems were mostly verse or couplets rather than prose type.

In between 1980s and 1990s, the poems which hatched in the issues of annual Limboo journals furthermore added new motion and dimension in paving the way of rapid growth and development of Limboo language and literature in Sikkim. The most of the poets were young and new with new thoughts, ideas, imagination, approach, outlook and dimension. The new faces of the poets which appeared in the later part 1980s and early 1990s were Ash Muringla, Samberman Tamling, S M Hembya, B B Pokhim, Birkha Begha, Keshab Nambhera, S B Mangyung, Bhim Mangyung, Deoman Khamdhak, Bishnu Setling, Seru Muringla, Maniraj Hukpa, B L Sawaden, Purna Singh Nugo, K B Nugo, Imeral Khewa, B B Maden, Suk Bir Tamling, Bimit Loksum, J L Sawaden, Dinesh Khamdhak, Basanti Parangden, Biru Pakhim, Dhan Roti Khamdhak, Indra Pokhim, P S Ijam, Dirga Man Khamdhak, Bir Bdr Khamdhak, R L Khamdhak, Aita Bdr Khamdhak, Ram Hang Sise:k Khamdhak, Srijonga Tamlimg, Buddhi Le:kwahang Khamdhak, Tek Bdr Khamdhak, Hasta Pondhak, Dhan Raj Yangwago etc. In the latter part of twenty first century some new faces of poets appeared in the area of Limboo poetry. Those to be mentioned are Sontosh Khamdhak, Raju Samsingbo, Suk Man Khamdhak, Millan Muringla, Dhanraj Khamdhak, Sukman Mangyung, Gambirman Khamdhak, Man Hang Khamdhak, Ajay Mangyung, Leela Tumbapo, Purna Singh Sutlungso Sambha, Bal Hang Lekwahang etc. Thus, annual Limboo journals not only revitalized Limboo language and literature but along the side, gave huge berth to the new emerging dynamic poets and writers.

between 1980 and 2013, 46 anthologies of Limboo poetry are written by the different poets. The publication of Limboo anthologies records highest percentage in Limboo literature in Sikkim. The first anthology ever published was a lyrical poetry, B B Muringlaray Kusamiklaha? in 1986by Mohn Ijam. Thereafter, Soklee:n (1988) by J L Sawaden and Mani Raj Hu:kpa appeared. Then it was followed by Ajibayemha? (1993) of Birkha Pegha, B B Pokhim and Indra Pokhim’s Nerwet Seegangba Ha:mjokwaha? (1993), Mundhuklay Iklaha?(1995) of B L Sawaden, Bhim Mangyung’s Sanumailaray Kusamitlaha?and Sukkumand Sa:khiha? (1996) of Dhan Roti Khamdhak.In 1997, three poetry anthologies, Ani? Ningsangha?, Samitla Itchi (edited) and Hetlukwa byP S Muringla,B B Muringla andSuk Bir Tamling respectively appeared which was followed by Ikla (1996) and Ningsang (1998) of Dhan Raj Yangwago, Siyakpe:ksigangba Fung by P S Ijam, Penjiri Pemmikha?by Buddhi Le:kwahang Khamdhak and Alamdi:k by Ram Hang Sise:k in 1999.  After 2000 also large number of Limboo poetry books, Nosa:nand Mungwa (2001) by Maruk Khamdhak and Santosh Khamdhak, Susangho and  Thokwa-a-Thokwaray Timseba Hingmon (2002)  by Harka Khamdhak and Hasta Pondha:k were published. In 2003, Ka?-e, by Dhan Roti Khamdhak, 2004, Sammey Sammitla and Ramidhamba Manghim respectivelybyB B Muringla and Sukman Mangyung,2005,Mikse:n, bySantosh Khamdhak,Cho:tlunglay Thoray?, by Raju Limboo, 2006, Po:ki  and  Hetlukwa by Bol Muringlaand B B Pokhim, 2007, Kusong Tanam, Mi:mjiri Mi:m and No:san by Buddhi Le:kwahang Khamdhak,  Birkha Man Nembang andKamala Menyangbo respectively were written. In 2008, Mi:mjimay and Chotlung by Santosh  Khamdhak and Dhan Raj Khamdhak, 2009, Nyanuphra,  Sumhatlung, Ta:ncho:k, Meringen Mikwaha? and Sonu Sepmangha? by Purna Sing Limboo, Leela Tumpapo, Dhan Raj Khamdhak andMilan Muringla, 2010, Ningsang Hingmon by Riwaj Sawaden, in 2011, Nosa:n, Ni:sunand Kha:miba A-Gangaba Toklahja?by Riwaj Sawaden and Shanhang Limboo, Birkha Pegha and Bal Muringla, in 2012, Pere:ngwa Sepmangha?andTepokwaha?by Arun Kumar Limboo and Lahang Limboo and Ashit Limboo and in 2013, Hukpanggi by Ms. Sanjitra Limboo and Adhoklunglen Iklaha? by Mr Mon Hang Khamdhak have been published respectively.

Although there have been rapid growth of poetry in Limboo literature in Sikkim, yet in diction and degree, it has not outreached maturity in its standard and dimension. The writing trend of Limboo poetry revolves mostly around marginalization and diction and still runs parallel to the traditional approach.

III i. (b) Lucksa:mbay (Semi-epics):

In Limboo literature, writing of Lucksa:mbay (Semi-Epic) is the resent trend which emerged after 1980s. The Lucksam:bay is in couplet poetical form which is longer than common poetry and shorter than those epics. Semmu-e (Depart) by Bir Nembang is the first lucksam:bay to have been written in Limboo literature in 1986. After four years of gap, another book, Ma:ray Mi:mji-O (1990) by  Chandra Mani Tumpapo was written. It then followed by R B Yakthungchum’s Kay Po:kma Mundhum, Mi:kho? of B B Maden in 1996 and Tek Bdr Khamdhak’s Miwaray Teppokwaha? of 1998 and Chelli-Songwa. In 2004, another lucksa:mbay, Heke-angsa? Kusing Ni:tum Lo?a  by Chandra Mangyung also appeared. These publication of lucksa:mbays further added new dimension to the Limboo literature in Sikkim.

III iii (a) Prose in Limboo Literature:

The emergence and development of prose writing in Limboo literature is as old as written Limboo poetry. Except dramas, novels and semi-epics, story, essay and other compositions were conceived in Tum Yakthung Ningwa?phu Sapla and Nisige:k Yakthung Sapla of 1951. Thereafter in 1974’s Limboo magazine, Tumdumdo Hena edited by BB Muringla and Chandra Mangyung and Limboo textbooks.

III iii. (b) Story:

Growth and emergence of writing modern story in Limboo literature is as old as that of written Limboo poetry. In the pre eras, the stories were all based on Limboo Mundhums (Mythologies), myths, legends, tales etc. Every Limboo mundhum contained voluminous units of different stories of pre-historic eras. Such stories are related to the creation of the universe like earth, sun, moon, stars, sky, different planets, mountains, hills, rivers, lakes, forests, animals, birds and human being etc. The mundhums were chanted by the Limboo shamans and laymen sitting around used to listen to those stories on the various occasions and ceremonial and ritual functions.

The Cho-it Mundhum describes about the cosmology as well as origin and creation of the universe like earth, sun, moon, stars, sky, different planets, mountains, hills, rivers, lakes, forests, animals, birds and human being etc. While Tendham Me:khim Mundhum (mythology of the marriage) describes the creation of love between sisagen menchhin and naligen thangben through bumble bee, their introduction through wind and finally marriage between the two through the cobweb. Sammang Nu Chyangmang Po:kma mundhum relates to the creation of the deities and divinities and Phungwa Changma Mundhum to the origin of  flowers, their species and dispersion, thereafter the genealogy and the migration of different clans of the Limboo tribes along the hills, valleys, mountains, river valleys in the various places of Himalayan region.

In Sikkim, the publication of Tum Yakthung Ningwa?phu Sapla and  Yakthung Nisige:k Sapla in 1951, marked the emergence of written Limboo stories. In Tum Yakthung Ningwa?phu Sapla, a story under the topic ‘Kheda?’ appeared. The story was about hot quarrel between the leg, hand and stomach. This was a first Limboo story ever written in the history of Limboo literature in Sikkim. But no name of the writer was stated against the story. In Nisige:k Yakthung Sapla, four stories, Piya:pa Nu Sikche:mba (Grasshopper and Ant) by Mon Bahadur Khamdhak, Hinja? Nu Pado:k (Children and Toad) by Iman Singh Chemjong, Nammin Nu Suri:t (Sun and Wind) by Padam Singh Muringla and Sigay Nu Fo:tta (Leopard and Rabbit) appeared. It was not mentioned as who wrote the last story, Sigay Nu Fo:tta. Most of the stories were related with the nature of insects, animals and human being.

Since 1976, when extensive writing of Limboo textbooks was started, modern Limboo stories written by different writers were included in the text books. The few interesting stories of those days to be mentioned here were Ningwa? Cha:pa Hinja?, Kheda Na:nbo, Nehi Kehoppa Pongbu:t (Class-IV,1976), Sapfedangma, Anga?Aa:klo?men (Class-V,1977), Mangsaray Kumik, Hangsa Fetlary (Class-VI,1987), Hara Me:khim Cho:maray, Hingmonlay Kumellung, Chappoti (Class-VIII), Amma, Ningwa Mendummaray, Penchhingsigang La:khe?, Neeyemba Mee:m, Me:khim Lenghong, Nimendepmana Yanghe:k, Thisondaray Laje?hepmo (Class-IX &X,1981) and  Khunay? Pangbhay Menu:khen, Miktak, Sarumba Kappoben, Adangba, Tokya:n Femma, Hukba:ngiray Huptuba Mee:m (Class-XI & XII,1984).

In Sikkim, the publication of Limboo magazines also commendably contributed to the development of modern Limboo stories. In the Limboo magazines stories began to emerge after 1977. The first story ever appeared in the magazine, Tumdumdo Hena (Issue-V) was Khenha? E:tmellay by Chandra Mangyung. Thereafter no stories were seen in any of the Limboo magazines of Sikkim for almost four years. In 1981, a story No Towa by Laiman Parangden appeared in the Issue-V of Nuwa Inghong from Lingchom. In the same year, another Limboo magazine named Lingnambhung was started by Mohn Ijam of Lingchom. Three stories, Phemba Ya:mbok Hu?singmen by Mohn Ijam, Mana Nu O-sek by Chatur Singh Yakthung and Chim Nosa:nba Mee:m by Prasad Singh Lingden simultaneously appeared in the said magazine. In 1982, there was a mushrooming of Limboo stories in the various Limboo magazines. In Tumdumdo Hena, five stories; Sima Mesuten by Harka Khamdhak, Hekay Ang-gra B P Angdembay, Weso?ma Sing Mohn Phrumbo (Issue-VII), Anga? Syangrocha D P Lingden and Sepmangmoba AB Khewa (Issue-VIII). Simultaneously in Nuwa Inghong (Issue-VI), Togi Femba Agang Noba by Samberman Tamling, Se:kmari (Issue-III), Maray Khahu:n by Santi Devi Yakthung and Yechhamaray Towa by Bharat Singh Yakthung, in Pelli (Issue-II) Ni:tchhamsa Suyo:nhang by Chandra Mani Tumba:ppo, in Lingnambhung Topri Lenghongha? by Samber Singh Lingden, Horu by Sankhar Man Thebay, Sodhokba Kheda? by Sancha Raj Khamdhak, Yetchhama by Chatur Singh Yakthung, Thimsang by Damber Phago (Issue-II) and Maba:kma Nu Tummasa by Durga Maya Nugo, Wechha? by Mohn Ijam and Yang Kesaba by Buddhiman Lingden (Issue-III) and in Ani? Lokhum (Issue-I), Cha:pa Ningwa? by Samberman Tamling. In this particular year, altogether, eighteen (18) Limboo stories were written and published in various magazines marking new era in the area of modern story in the Limboo literature in Sikkim.  In the subsequent year, there has been publication of uncountable Limboo stories in the various Limboo magazines in Sikkim. From 1982 to 1990, 22 new Limboo magazines were published from different corner of Sikkim and in those magazines within this eight years, one hundred twenty four (124) stories written by different writers were published. Of these, 24 were published in Eme:thnasung,12 Lingnamfung, 11 Fung-ik, 8 Chuksangding Sewa, 8 Ningsang, 8 Tijo, 6 Ta:nam, 6 To?ji, 6 Muinam, 5  Fungwa:mma,  4 Nadong, 4 Fung-ik, 3 Mering, 3 Yakthung Sokpewa, 2 Namsang, 2 Tumdumdo Hena, 2 Pelli1 Ani? Lokhum, 2 Sikthim Sung, 2 Tummu-e, 1 Lamdhan, and 1 Maroti Fung. Amongst, Eme:thnasung has made the highest contribution towards fostering and grooming young story writers and had been playing paramount role in growth and development of stories in the field of Limboo literature in Sikkim.

Along with this number of anthology of story books were also written by the various writers. Soke:k (1984)  by Harka Khamdhak was the first Limboo story book written in the history of Limboo literature. Therefrom, Mikkifunglay We? Naebe:k by Deo Man Khamdhak appeared in 1993 which was followed by the publication of Mikchiri Mikpay of Samber Tamling in 1995 and  Chira:klay Mee by BB Muringla. In 1998, E:thla?ba Sepmangha? by Buddhi Le:kwahang Khamdhak came to the limelight following which other collection of Limboo story books, Cherengnam Therengnam by Basanti Parangden and Yenmoga Amdumnen of  P S Ijam staged in 1999. In 2004, Harka Khamdhak’s Kharmak Pungmoba Khe Kedoben and Kusong Oti in 2006 by Samber Tamling also came out. An anthology of short stories, Pemuksigangba Kheda?ha? of Buddhi Le:kwahang Khamdhak and Asepmangha? by Prem Kr. Muringla also appeared in 2009.

III iii  (c)  Novels:

Until 1980s there was dearth of novels in Limboo literature. The first Limboo novel Tho:thama by PS Muringla ‘Apatan’ appeared in 1984. It was first of this kind ever written in Limboo literature. This novel was the fiction of sorrow, horror and adventure covering the soci-cultural aspects of Limboo community. Since then there has been subsequent publication of novels in the Limboo literature. In 1985, Fungpona-e by Mani Raj Hukpa was published followed Hingmonlay Tangba Lamdi:k of Sat Kumar Singdha?ba (1987), Mi:mlay Aphlekhay of Lalita Kumar Muringla (1988). In 1989, Sakmra by Deo Man Khamdhak appeared which was followed by BB Pokhim’s Chosaplungma of 1991. The publication of Thetlong in 1993, by Deo Man Khamdhak further added new dimension to Limboo literature in the arena of novel. Subsequently, Leppme (1995) another novel by the same novelist, Ningwa?so (1995) of  Indra Pakhim, Mundang Seri (2000) of RB Yakthungchum Sepmang (2001) of Bishnu Lal Sawaden, Ningwa?sorat (2005)  by Rup Lal Khamdhak, Sami:m (2007) by Hasta Pondhak and Tohanglay Kusepmang (2009) by Denhang Tamling appeared. If Tho:thama occupies an important place in the history of Limboo literature for being the first Limboo novel while Thetlong set a romantic trend in the writing of the novel. Rests of them commonly reflect the feelings and social of life of the Limboo community, social awakening and reforms. The period from 1980s there was a great awakening in the writing of Limboo novels among the Limboo writers of the Sikkim.

III iii (d) Essay:

In the history of Limboo literature, written essay appeared for the first time in 1951 in Limboo premier, Yakthung Nisige:kpa Sapla along with the written poetry and story. Pit (Cow) by Mon Bahadur Khamdhak and Ko:tcho (Dog) by Padam Singh Muringla, two essays appeared in the premier. These essays were the first one ever written in the history of Limboo literature. Thereafter, there was a prolong silence gap of written essays in Limboo literature until 1975. In 1975, two essays, Hoyong Poyong and Srijonga Sok by Chandra Mangyung appeared in Tumdumdo Hena (Issue-III). In the same magazine of Issue-IV and Issue-V (1977) furthermore, seven essays, Amenchinlay Kumenchin by Chandra Mangyung, Mu-e-gum Ongsee and ThingNingwa? by Jas Hang Maden and Sodhungen Chemjonghang by Harka Bahadur Tamling, Sodhungen Chemjonghangnu by B B Muringla, Sodhungen Sangramba Chemjonghang by Aitaman Tamling and Sukhim Laje? by P S Muringla were published. In 1978, in the same magazine two essays, Sodhungen Itcha Purna Das and Yakthung Chopta by Chandra Mangyung and Harka Khamdhak appeared. From 1978, next Limboo magazine, Nuwa Inghong by Mohn Ijam, R B Le:kwahang Khamdhak and Aitaman Tamling emerged. In its second issue (1979), three essays, Aha:pmara? Yu, Nowa Inghonglay Ta?jeng and Sapsok Sewa Chogiro by R B Lekwahang Khamdhak, Harka Khamdhak and Mohn Ijam were published. Since 1980s there has been rapid growth and development of modern limboo essays in the field of Limboo literature.

When Limboo text books were prepared after 1975 for the different level of classes, modern essays were included in the curriculum. To be named few essays written for the textbooks were Thikhum, Inghong Sapla of Class-IV (1976) and Yakthungbaray Najom Thim of Class-V (1977). Since then number essays were subsequently added in the In 1978 , Auna Yakthung Sapsok Sapmundhum by PS Muringla, Sam-ik and Sapsok Phomellay by B B Muringla were also included in the textbooks of Class IX and X (1981).  The prominent essayists of that period were PS Muringla, BB Muringla, Chandra Mangyung, Jas Hang Maden, Harka Bahadur Tamling, Aitaman Tamling, Harka Khamdhak, R B Le:kwahang Khamdhak, Mohn Ijam, Mohn Phrumbo, G D Mangyung, SR Khojum etc.

III iii (e) Drama:

Drama is the youngest amongst all the literary writings in Limboo literature. In the other sense, drama writing began and progressed much latter than written poetry and other genres like story, essay and rest of the prose compositions. The Langbho:ngaray Pangwaela  by B B Muringla was the first drama ever written in 1977. This was included in the Limboo text of Class V. Next to this was Lenghong of Class VI written in 1978 by the same play writer. Former was amusing in character and based on football match while latter was satiric reflecting over drinking and mismanagement of family resources appealing for social reformation and change. It is to say that latter was more didactic drama. In 1981, when Limboo language accepted by Central Board of Secondary Education and introduced in Class IX and X as one of the core subject, Chesya? and Bolihang by B B Muringla were furthermore added to the Limboo textbooks respectively. Those two plays further added glamour to the Limboo literature. 

Publication of annual Limboo magazines also immensely contributed to the growth and development of Limboo plays. In 1980, Thimha? To:nmasi-a Po:ng by Mohn Ijam appeared in one of the annual Limboo magazine, Nowa-inghong (Issue-IV). As its title suggests the play emphases more on the reformation of the society against social evils. Likewise, Me:tyembaray khema? (1982) by Purni Nugo published in Lingnam Phungma (Issue-III), reflected the frequent quarrel between the husband and wife in the family.  Nambherama (1984) of Sushma Muringla in Chuksangding Sewa (Issue-I), Semmu-e (1989) by Shyam Bdr Yakthung in Mu-ing (Issue-I), Khema?ray Kubung (1993) and Himsigang Thikhum Ho:pgara (1995) of Basanti Parangden in Mikchiri Mikto:k (Issue-II) and Leplung (Issue-I), Thiray Yapme Sumboang Ottubarachha (1995) of S B Mangyung in Mangenna?sung (Issue-I) mainly focus of the social evils and problems which prevailed during those day in the Limboo society. Keshab Nambhera Mangyung’s Mi:m  (1996) of Namsang (Issue-III)  is poetic play while Adhinggani of M:m (Issue-I) is romantic play. Son Mangyung’s Yakthung Sapa:nlay Kuye:kya ( 1996) of Eme:thnasung (Issue-XVI) depicts the importance of mother-tongue while, Angbo Himo Menu:khen (1999) of Buddhi Le:kwahang Khamdhak of Nisum (Issue-I) thematically reflects the mismanagement of family resources, life and time, irresponsibility and overdrinking habit of the head of the family and which leads to the lost of family wealth. Mangsewa  (2001) by Santosh Pondha:k of Kay-so:ngla (Issue-I), Bimit Loksum’s Bikram Te:mbhuk Chyay (2007) of Eme:thnasung and  Chova?  (2010) by Purna Khamdhak of Eme:thnasung also reflect the social way of life of the people and Yakthung Chumlung Sabha  (2011) by Manghangma Tamling published in Eme:thnasung (Issue- ) is the brief biography of Iman Singh Chemjong and it was performed for the stage on number of occasions. The main persons and characters behind the successful stage performance of this play to be named were Binod Kumar Limboo, Aitaman Khamdhak, Manghangma Tamling and others.

Besides, two drama collection books as well as single drama book have also been written in the Limboo literature. In 1986, Sat Kumar Singdha?ba of Aho, East Sikkim wrote a play book entitled, ‘Kereklay Mik-o-ba Tamjee’. It was for the first time in the history that such contribution towards Limboo literature and language was made by the single-minded writer from East Sikkim. In the record, no such contribution of any Limboo books of any kind was ever accorded from East Sikkim till 1986. In 2004, a collection of Limboo play ‘Nangbriba’ by Manhang Khamdhak was written. This further added drop of ambrosia in the thirsty bowl of play and drama of Limboo language and literature. The book contained only three plays. In 2011, ‘Hingmon Lamdi:k’ plays of various kind and nature by Ram Hang Sise:k appeared in the arena of Limboo literature. The book, collection fifteen plays could further quench the dearth of drama in Limboo language.

Conclusion: The development of Limboo and literature in Sikkim cannot merely be measured in terms of rapid growth of poetry, story, essay, novels and other compositions but also be justified by taking into the consideration of large number other publications. The other publications such as mundhum books, captions, souvenirs, postal magazines, comics, satire, general books, bulletins etc. also greatly accelerated the pace of the growth and development of Limboo Language and literature in Sikkim. Till date 66 annual Limboo magazines have been published, 6 mundhums books, 7 captions, 10 souvenir and biographical accounts, 10 bulletins and newsletters, 1 satire, 2 postal magazines and 10 other books including genealogical account, history have been written so far. These publications have greatly enriched Limboo literature and added new strength to the Limboo language in Sikkim.

  

References:

Primary Source:

Field Survey.

Census of India (2001), Paper 1 of 2007, Language, India, States & Union Territories [Table.16].

Census of India (2011), Provisional Population Totals, Paper 1 of 2011, Sikkim series 12.

UNESCO Interactive Atlas of the World’s Languages in Danger (2009), Heritage online database, Intangible Cultural Heritage Section, UNESCO.

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